Pre-Historic Period & Sources of Information
Exhaustive study guide on the Pre-historic era of India. Master the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Iron Ages, including key archaeological sites, tool technologies, fossil records, and UP-specific developments for AHC RO/ARO and UPSC exams.
1. Historiography, Pioneers & Classifications
Indian prehistory is the study of the human past before the advent of written records. The classification of human cultural history is broadly tripartite:
- Prehistory: No written records. Relies 100% on archaeological remains (e.g., Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic).
- Protohistory: Writing exists but is either not deciphered (e.g., Indus Valley Civilization) or lacks direct archaeological corroboration (e.g., Vedic period).
- History: Written records are available and deciphered (begins around 6th Century BC with Mahajanapadas and Ashokan inscriptions).
Pioneers of Indian Prehistory
The systematic study of Indian prehistory began in the 19th century. Below are the key figures whose discoveries are frequently asked in competitive exams:
- Robert Bruce Foote: A British geologist who discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India (an Acheulean handaxe/cleaver) at Pallavaram near Chennai in May 1863. Hence, he is called the Father of Indian Prehistory.
- Alexander Cunningham: A British Army engineer who became the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861. He is known as the Father of Indian Archaeology.
- Dr. V.S. Wakankar: An Indian archaeologist who discovered the world-famous Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh in 1957.
- Arun Sonakia: Discovered the fossilized skull cap of Homo erectus (Narmada Human) at Hathnora (MP) in 1982.
- H.D. Sankalia: Conducted extensive scientific excavations across India (Nevasa, Langhnaj, Navdatoli) and structured prehistoric studies.
- Sir Mortimer Wheeler: D-G of ASI who introduced scientific stratigraphy in excavations, allowing precise relative dating of archaeological layers.
2. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 2 Million BC – 10,000 BC
The Palaeolithic Age developed during the Pleistocene epoch (Ice Age), during which major portions of the earth were covered in ice, forcing early humans to live in cave shelters and hunt large game. Humans were completely nomadic hunter-gatherers, with no knowledge of agriculture or pottery. Because they used rough, unpolished quartzite stones for tools, they are often referred to as 'Quartzite Men'.
Sub-Divisions of the Palaeolithic Age
Based on tool technology and climatic changes, the Palaeolithic is divided into three phases:
| Phase & Period | Tool Technology | Key Climatic Features | Major Indian Sites |
|---|
| Lower Palaeolithic | Handaxes, cleavers, choppers (heavy pebble core tools). Acheulean & Soanian cultures. | Severe Ice Age. Extreme cold and dry conditions. | Bori (MH - oldest, ~1.4 Ma), Attirampakkam (TN), Didwana (RJ), Hunsgi (KA), Belan Valley (UP). |
| Middle Palaeolithic | Flake-based tools (scrapers, borers, points). Nevasan culture. | Slight warming, flake tradition replaces core tools. | Nevasa (MH), Didwana (RJ), Bhimbetka (MP), Belan Valley (UP). |
| Upper Palaeolithic | Blades, burins, bone tools. Emergence of modern Homo sapiens. | Warmer, end of Pleistocene. Less ice cover. | Kurnool Caves (AP - ash/fire), Patne (MH - ostrich shells), Lohanda Nala (UP - Mother Goddess figurine), Baghor I (MP). |
Critical Discoveries & Sites
- Hathnora (MP): Located on the banks of the Narmada River. Yielded the skull cap of Homo erectus (Narmada Human), the only pre-Homo sapiens human fossil found in the entire Indian subcontinent.
- Kurnool Caves (AP): Provided the earliest evidence of the use of fire in the Indian subcontinent, indicated by thick deposits of ash.
- Patne (Maharashtra): Yielded fragments of ostrich eggshells engraved with geometric designs and turned into beads, proving Upper Palaeolithic art.
- Baghor I (MP): Excavations in the Son Valley revealed a stone platform with a triangular stone in the center, interpreted as the earliest prehistoric shrine (worship of Mother Goddess) dating back to ~10,000 BC.
- Lohanda Nala (Belan Valley, UP): Yielded a carved bone object identified as a Mother Goddess figurine (some scholars interpret it as a bone harpoon), representing one of the earliest bone sculptures in the world.
3. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): 10,000 BC – 6,000 BC
The Mesolithic Age was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. It coincided with the onset of the Holocene epoch, bringing a warmer, wetter climate, which led to the expansion of flora and fauna. Humans adapted by hunting smaller, faster animals (rabbits, birds), fishing, and fowling.
Key Feature: Microliths
The primary technological marker of this period is the Microlith—tiny, sharp, geometric stone tools (like triangles, trapezes, crescents) usually ranging from 1 to 5 cm in size. These were hafted onto wooden or bone handles to make composite tools like arrows, spears, and sickles.
Major Mesolithic Sites & Discoveries
- Bagor (Rajasthan): Located on the Kothari River. It is the largest Mesolithic site in India and, along with Adamgarh (MP), provides the earliest evidence of animal domestication (dogs, sheep, goats, cattle) dating back to ~5000 BC.
- Chopani Mando (UP): Located in the Belan Valley, Prayagraj. It shows a sequence from Mesolithic to Neolithic and has yielded the earliest handmade pottery in the world.
- Pratapgarh District Sites (UP): These sites are crucial for UP exams:
- Sarai Nahar Rai: Yielded the earliest evidence of human burials (intentional graves) and structural hearths inside huts. It also shows the earliest evidence of human conflict/war (a skeleton with a stone arrowhead embedded in its rib).
- Mahadaha: Famous for double burials (male and female buried together in the same grave) and ornaments made of bone and deer antlers (ear rings, necklaces).
- Damdama: Yielded 41 human graves, including a unique triple burial (three individuals in one grave) and several double burials.
- Langhnaj (Gujarat): Provided microliths, animal bones, and 14 human skeletons, indicating a sandy dune hunting camp.
4. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): 6,000 BC – 1,000 BC
The Neolithic Age represents a massive socio-economic transformation in human history, famously termed the 'Neolithic Revolution' by archaeologist V. Gordon Childe. Early humans transitioned from being nomadic food-gatherers to settled food-producers. The defining characteristics of this age are:
- Introduction of settled agriculture.
- Domestication of animals on a large scale.
- Invention of pottery (first hand-made, then wheel-made) to store surplus food.
- Use of polished, ground stone tools (celts) with sharp cutting edges.
- Discovery of the wheel for transport and pottery.
Crucial Neolithic Sites in India
- Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): Located near the Bolan Pass. It is the earliest Neolithic settlement in the subcontinent, dating to ~7000 BC. It provides the earliest evidence of wheat and barley cultivation, sheep/goat domestication, and the earliest cotton cultivation in the world. It also has evidence of early dentistry (teeth drilled with flint drills).
- Burzahom (Kashmir): Meaning 'place of birch'. Famous for pit-dwellings (subterranean pits dug into the soil to protect against cold). Pit walls were plastered with mud and had post-holes for roofs. Burzahom is unique for the burial of domestic dogs along with their masters in human graves. Microliths are completely absent here.
- Gufkral (Kashmir): Meaning 'cave of the potter'. A major site showing pit-dwellings, bone tools, and a transition from a pre-ceramic to a ceramic neolithic phase.
- Lahuradewa (Sant Kabir Nagar, UP): Recent excavations have revolutionized prehistoric timelines. It has yielded the earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world, dating back to ~9000 BC. This makes it older than both Koldihwa and Mehrgarh.
- Koldihwa (Belan Valley, UP): Long considered the oldest rice-growing site, Koldihwa yielded rice husks embedded in pottery clay dated to ~6000 BC.
- Chirand (Bihar): Located at the confluence of rivers, Chirand is remarkable for a massive collection of bone tools made of deer antlers, which is unique in Northern India outside Kashmir.
- Ash Mounds of South India: Neolithic sites like Piklihal, Utnur, Kupgal, Kodekal, and Hallur are famous for large Ash Mounds. These are heaps of accumulated cow dung that were ceremonially burnt, indicating pastoralism and cattle penning.
5. Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age): 3,000 BC – 500 BC
The Chalcolithic Age marked the transition from the Stone Age to the Metal Age. Copper was the first metal used by humans, along with stone tools. These communities were primarily rural, unlike the contemporary urban Harappan Civilization (which was Bronze Age). They lived in mud-brick or wattle-and-daub houses and made painted pottery, especially Black-and-Red Ware (BRW).
Major Chalcolithic Cultures & Sites
| Culture | Region & Period | Key Features & Discoveries | Major Sites |
|---|
| Ahar-Banas Culture | SE Rajasthan
(~2100 BC – 1500 BC) | Exclusively copper tools, complete absence of microliths. Ahar is known as Tambavati (place of copper). Gilund has stone-blade industry and kiln-burnt bricks. | Ahar, Gilund, Balathal. |
| Kayatha Culture | Chambal Valley, MP
(~2400 BC – 2000 BC) | Mud houses, copper axes, beads of semi-precious stones (carnelian, steatite). Early contact with Harappans. | Kayatha. |
| Malwa Culture | Central India, MP
(~1700 BC – 1200 BC) | Rich, painted pottery. Navdatoli is the largest site, yielding the richest variety of food grains in prehistoric India (wheat, barley, rice, pulses, excavated by H.D. Sankalia). | Navdatoli, Eran, Nagda. |
| Jorwe Culture | Maharashtra
(~1400 BC – 700 BC) | Fortified settlements, child burials in urns under house floors. Daimabad is the largest site, famous for a hoard of Harappan-influenced bronze sculptures. | Daimabad, Inamgaon, Nevasa, Chandoli. |
Key Social and Technological Insights
- Urn Burials & High Infant Mortality: A large number of child burials in urns under the floors of houses (especially in the Jorwe culture) indicates high infant mortality and deep-seated burial customs.
- Burial Orientations: In Northern India, bodies were buried in a North-South orientation, while in Southern India, they were buried East-West.
- Daimabad Bronze Hoard: Discovered in 1974, this hoard includes four exquisite solid bronze figures: a chariot driven by a man, a rhinoceros, an elephant, and a buffalo. They are believed to be imports or late Harappan influences.
- Inamgaon (MH): A large, fortified Jorwe settlement with a granary, jetty, and houses arranged in a planned layout. Yielded evidence of mother goddess worship.
6. Uttar Pradesh (UP) Special Focus & Megaliths
For AHC RO/ARO and state-level exams, Uttar Pradesh's prehistoric sites hold massive weightage. The state features key sites from all prehistoric phases, demonstrating a rich and continuous evolution of early human cultures.
| UP Site | District Location | Prehistoric Phase | Significance / Discoveries |
|---|
| Belan Valley | Mirzapur / Sonbhadra / Prayagraj | Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic | Continuous cultural sequence. Lohanda Nala bone Mother Goddess figurine (Palaeolithic). Excavated under G.R. Sharma. |
| Chopani Mando | Prayagraj (Belan Valley) | Mesolithic to Neolithic | Earliest evidence of handmade pottery in the world. Transition to settled life. |
| Koldihwa | Prayagraj (Belan Valley) | Neolithic to Chalcolithic | Pioneering evidence of rice cultivation (~6000 BC) in the form of grain husks embedded in pottery clay. |
| Lahuradewa | Sant Kabir Nagar | Neolithic | Oldest rice cultivation in the world (~9000 BC). Pushed back Neolithic agriculture timelines in Asia. |
| Sarai Nahar Rai | Pratapgarh | Mesolithic | Earliest burials in India. Skeletons showing death by combat/embedded arrowheads. Hearths built inside circular huts. |
| Mahadaha | Pratapgarh | Mesolithic | Double burials (male-female buried together). Bone & antler ornaments (necklaces, earrings). |
| Damdama | Pratapgarh | Mesolithic | 41 burials. Unique triple burial (three skeletons in one grave), double burials, and intensive bone points. |
Megalithic Burials & Iron Age in South India
While UP is rich in Stone and Copper age sites, Southern India transitioned from the Neolithic directly into the Iron Age, bypassing a major Chalcolithic phase. The Southern Iron Age is characterized by Megaliths—graves and memorials constructed using large boulders. Iron implements (daggers, arrowheads, sickles, lances) and Black-and-Red pottery were buried with the dead as grave goods. Key Megalithic sites include Adichanallur (TN), Hire Benakal (KA), and Hallur (KA).
Prehistoric Timeline & Chronological Development
- 2 Million BC – 10,000 BC — Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): Divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic. Characterized by Pleistocene Ice Age, nomadic hunting-gathering, quartzite tools, and the discovery of fire (late phase). Earliest hominid fossil found at Hathnora.
- 10,000 BC – 6,000 BC — Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): Coincides with Holocene warming. Characterized by microliths (tiny stone tools under 5cm), hunting smaller game, and early animal domestication (Bagor, Adamgarh). Human burials and bone ornaments appear in UP (Pratapgarh).
- 6,000 BC – 1,000 BC — Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): The 'Neolithic Revolution' (V. Gordon Childe). Development of settled agriculture, pottery, discovery of the wheel, and polished stone celts. Major sites: Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Koldihwa, Lahuradewa.
- 3,000 BC – 500 BC — Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age): First metal age using copper alongside stone. Rural farming communities, painted Black-and-Red Ware, regional cultures (Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe). Fortified sites like Inamgaon and Daimabad. High infant mortality.
- 1,000 BC – Historical Period — Iron Age & Megalithic Culture: Introduction of iron metallurgy, transition to Painted Grey Ware (PGW) in the north, and Megalithic burials (large stone circle graves) in South India (Adichanallur, Hire Benakal).
Key Questions & Answers
- Who is the Father of Indian Prehistory?
- Robert Bruce Foote . He discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India (an Acheulean handaxe/cleaver) at Pallavaram, Chennai, in 1863.
- Which site yielded the earliest hominid fossil in India?
- Hathnora (Narmada Valley, MP). Arun Sonakia discovered the Homo erectus skull cap (Narmada Human) here in 1982.
- Where is the earliest evidence of agriculture in the subcontinent?
- Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan). Dates back to ~7000 BC, showing cultivation of wheat, barley, and cotton.
- Which site provides the oldest evidence of rice cultivation in the world?
- Lahuradewa (Sant Kabir Nagar, UP). Excavations show rice cultivation dating to ~9000 BC, older than Koldihwa (~6000 BC).
- What are Ash Mounds in the context of Indian prehistory?
- Accumulations of burnt cow dung found at South Indian Neolithic sites like Piklihal , Utnur , and Kupgal , indicating cattle penning.
- Which Mesolithic site in UP has a triple burial?
- Damdama (Pratapgarh, UP). It contains a single grave containing three human skeletons buried together.
- What is unique about the Ahar Chalcolithic culture?
- Also known as Tambavati (place of copper) in Rajasthan. It lacks a stone-blade/microlith industry; tools were exclusively copper.
- Where was the famous Daimabad bronze hoard found?
- Daimabad (Maharashtra), a Jorwe culture site. It yielded exquisite bronze sculptures of a chariot with driver, rhino, elephant, and buffalo.
Memory Aids
- Chronological Sequence: P lease M ake N ew C opper I tems ➔ P aleolithic ➔ M esolithic ➔ N eolithic ➔ C halcolithic ➔ I ron Age.
- Pratapgarh Mesolithic Sites (UP): S uper M edical D epartment ➔ S arai Nahar Rai, M ahadaha, D amdama (Pratapgarh district, UP). Key Mesolithic burial sites.
- Bhimbetka Discoverer: Sounds like 'Walk in Car'. Dr. V.S. Wakankar drove and walked to discover Bhimbetka caves in 1957.
- Hathnora Fossil Discoverer: Arun Sonakia discovered the skull of the 'Son' of Narmada (Homo erectus hominid fossil) in 1982.
Common Exam Traps
- Trap 1: Confusing Koldihwa and Lahuradewa for Rice. Koldihwa (~6000 BC) was long considered the oldest, but recent excavations at Lahuradewa (UP) pushed it back to ~9000 BC. If both are in options, Lahuradewa is correct.
- Trap 2: Assuming Palaeolithic people had agriculture or pottery. They were strictly hunter-gatherers. Pottery and agriculture only emerged in the Neolithic period (with the unique exception of Mesolithic Chopani Mando having the earliest handmade pottery).
- Trap 3: Believing Megaliths are only found in South India. While most famous in South India (associated with the Iron Age), early Megalithic structures have also been found in Kashmir, UP, and Rajasthan.
- Trap 4: Conflating 'Father of Indian Prehistory' with 'Father of Indian Archaeology'. Robert Bruce Foote is the Father of Indian Prehistory (discovered Pallavaram tool in 1863). Alexander Cunningham is the Father of Indian Archaeology (founded ASI in 1861).