Pre-Historic Period & Sources of Information

Indian prehistory is the study of the human past before the advent of written records. The classification of human cultural history is broadly tripartite:

• Prehistory: No written records. Relies 100% on archaeological remains (e.g., Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic).
• Protohistory: Writing exists but is either not deciphered (e.g., Indus Valley Civilization) or lacks direct archaeological corroboration (e.g., Vedic period).
• History: Written records are available and deciphered (begins around 6th Century BC with Mahajanapadas and Ashokan inscriptions).

Pioneers of Indian Prehistory

The systematic study of Indian prehistory began in the 19th century. Below are the key figures whose discoveries are frequently asked in competitive exams:

• Robert Bruce Foote: A British geologist who discovered the first Palaeolithic tool in India (an Acheulean handaxe/cleaver) at Pallavaram near Chennai in May 1863. Hence, he is called the Father of Indian Prehistory.
• Alexander Cunningham: A British Army engineer who became the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861. He is known as the Father of Indian Archaeology.
• Dr. V.S. Wakankar: An Indian archaeologist who discovered the world-famous Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh in 1957.
• Arun Sonakia: Discovered the fossilized skull cap of Homo erectus (Narmada Human) at Hathnora (MP) in 1982.
• H.D. Sankalia: Conducted extensive scientific excavations across India (Nevasa, Langhnaj, Navdatoli) and structured prehistoric studies.
• Sir Mortimer Wheeler: D-G of ASI who introduced scientific stratigraphy in excavations, allowing precise relative dating of archaeological layers.

The Palaeolithic Age developed during the Pleistocene epoch (Ice Age), during which major portions of the earth were covered in ice, forcing early humans to live in cave shelters and hunt large game. Humans were completely nomadic hunter-gatherers, with no knowledge of agriculture or pottery. Because they used rough, unpolished quartzite stones for tools, they are often referred to as 'Quartzite Men'.

Sub-Divisions of the Palaeolithic Age

Based on tool technology and climatic changes, the Palaeolithic is divided into three phases:

Critical Discoveries & Sites

• Hathnora (MP): Located on the banks of the Narmada River. Yielded the skull cap of Homo erectus (Narmada Human), the only pre-Homo sapiens human fossil found in the entire Indian subcontinent.
• Kurnool Caves (AP): Provided the earliest evidence of the use of fire in the Indian subcontinent, indicated by thick deposits of ash.
• Patne (Maharashtra): Yielded fragments of ostrich eggshells engraved with geometric designs and turned into beads, proving Upper Palaeolithic art.
• Baghor I (MP): Excavations in the Son Valley revealed a stone platform with a triangular stone in the center, interpreted as the earliest prehistoric shrine (worship of Mother Goddess) dating back to ~10,000 BC.
• Lohanda Nala (Belan Valley, UP): Yielded a carved bone object identified as a Mother Goddess figurine (some scholars interpret it as a bone harpoon), representing one of the earliest bone sculptures in the world.

The Mesolithic Age was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. It coincided with the onset of the Holocene epoch, bringing a warmer, wetter climate, which led to the expansion of flora and fauna. Humans adapted by hunting smaller, faster animals (rabbits, birds), fishing, and fowling.

Key Feature: Microliths

The primary technological marker of this period is the Microlith—tiny, sharp, geometric stone tools (like triangles, trapezes, crescents) usually ranging from 1 to 5 cm in size. These were hafted onto wooden or bone handles to make composite tools like arrows, spears, and sickles.

Major Mesolithic Sites & Discoveries

• Bagor (Rajasthan): Located on the Kothari River. It is the largest Mesolithic site in India and, along with Adamgarh (MP), provides the earliest evidence of animal domestication (dogs, sheep, goats, cattle) dating back to ~5000 BC.
• Chopani Mando (UP): Located in the Belan Valley, Prayagraj. It shows a sequence from Mesolithic to Neolithic and has yielded the earliest handmade pottery in the world.
• Pratapgarh District Sites (UP): These sites are crucial for UP exams:
  • Sarai Nahar Rai: Yielded the earliest evidence of human burials (intentional graves) and structural hearths inside huts. It also shows the earliest evidence of human conflict/war (a skeleton with a stone arrowhead embedded in its rib).
  • Mahadaha: Famous for double burials (male and female buried together in the same grave) and ornaments made of bone and deer antlers (ear rings, necklaces).
  • Damdama: Yielded 41 human graves, including a unique triple burial (three individuals in one grave) and several double burials.
• Langhnaj (Gujarat): Provided microliths, animal bones, and 14 human skeletons, indicating a sandy dune hunting camp.

The Neolithic Age represents a massive socio-economic transformation in human history, famously termed the 'Neolithic Revolution' by archaeologist V. Gordon Childe. Early humans transitioned from being nomadic food-gatherers to settled food-producers. The defining characteristics of this age are:

1. Introduction of settled agriculture.
2. Domestication of animals on a large scale.
3. Invention of pottery (first hand-made, then wheel-made) to store surplus food.
4. Use of polished, ground stone tools (celts) with sharp cutting edges.
5. Discovery of the wheel for transport and pottery.

Crucial Neolithic Sites in India

• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): Located near the Bolan Pass. It is the earliest Neolithic settlement in the subcontinent, dating to ~7000 BC. It provides the earliest evidence of wheat and barley cultivation, sheep/goat domestication, and the earliest cotton cultivation in the world. It also has evidence of early dentistry (teeth drilled with flint drills).
• Burzahom (Kashmir): Meaning 'place of birch'. Famous for pit-dwellings (subterranean pits dug into the soil to protect against cold). Pit walls were plastered with mud and had post-holes for roofs. Burzahom is unique for the burial of domestic dogs along with their masters in human graves. Microliths are completely absent here.
• Gufkral (Kashmir): Meaning 'cave of the potter'. A major site showing pit-dwellings, bone tools, and a transition from a pre-ceramic to a ceramic neolithic phase.
• Lahuradewa (Sant Kabir Nagar, UP): Recent excavations have revolutionized prehistoric timelines. It has yielded the earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world, dating back to ~9000 BC. This makes it older than both Koldihwa and Mehrgarh.
• Koldihwa (Belan Valley, UP): Long considered the oldest rice-growing site, Koldihwa yielded rice husks embedded in pottery clay dated to ~6000 BC.
• Chirand (Bihar): Located at the confluence of rivers, Chirand is remarkable for a massive collection of bone tools made of deer antlers, which is unique in Northern India outside Kashmir.
• Ash Mounds of South India: Neolithic sites like Piklihal, Utnur, Kupgal, Kodekal, and Hallur are famous for large Ash Mounds. These are heaps of accumulated cow dung that were ceremonially burnt, indicating pastoralism and cattle penning.

The Chalcolithic Age marked the transition from the Stone Age to the Metal Age. Copper was the first metal used by humans, along with stone tools. These communities were primarily rural, unlike the contemporary urban Harappan Civilization (which was Bronze Age). They lived in mud-brick or wattle-and-daub houses and made painted pottery, especially Black-and-Red Ware (BRW).

Major Chalcolithic Cultures & Sites

Key Social and Technological Insights

• Urn Burials & High Infant Mortality: A large number of child burials in urns under the floors of houses (especially in the Jorwe culture) indicates high infant mortality and deep-seated burial customs.
• Burial Orientations: In Northern India, bodies were buried in a North-South orientation, while in Southern India, they were buried East-West.
• Daimabad Bronze Hoard: Discovered in 1974, this hoard includes four exquisite solid bronze figures: a chariot driven by a man, a rhinoceros, an elephant, and a buffalo. They are believed to be imports or late Harappan influences.
• Inamgaon (MH): A large, fortified Jorwe settlement with a granary, jetty, and houses arranged in a planned layout. Yielded evidence of mother goddess worship.

For AHC RO/ARO and state-level exams, Uttar Pradesh's prehistoric sites hold massive weightage. The state features key sites from all prehistoric phases, demonstrating a rich and continuous evolution of early human cultures.

Megalithic Burials & Iron Age in South India

While UP is rich in Stone and Copper age sites, Southern India transitioned from the Neolithic directly into the Iron Age, bypassing a major Chalcolithic phase. The Southern Iron Age is characterized by Megaliths—graves and memorials constructed using large boulders. Iron implements (daggers, arrowheads, sickles, lances) and Black-and-Red pottery were buried with the dead as grave goods. Key Megalithic sites include Adichanallur (TN), Hire Benakal (KA), and Hallur (KA).