The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

It was a wave of liberal-nationalist revolutions in Europe. Liberals supported constitutionalism, representative government, freedom of the press, freedom of association, individual liberty, equality before law and economic freedom of markets.

• Folk songs, poetry and dances expressed shared cultural heritage.
• The Grimm Brothers collected folktales and worked on the German language.
• Polish language and music kept national feelings alive despite foreign domination.

Germany: Prussia led unification under Bismarck through three wars and proclaimed the German Empire in 1871.

Italy: Mazzini's republican vision, Cavour's diplomacy, Garibaldi's volunteers and Victor Emmanuel II's monarchy contributed to unification; Italy was proclaimed united in 1861 and the process was completed in 1870.

Britain's nation-state developed through a long process of parliamentary and political consolidation rather than a sudden revolution. England gradually extended its influence over Scotland, Wales and Ireland, with English culture becoming dominant.

• Different Slavic nationalities sought independence and political rights.
• The Ottoman Empire was weakening.
• Balkan states competed for territory.
• European powers competed for influence, trade and strategic control.

Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who opposed monarchy and supported democratic republics. He joined the Carbonari and founded Young Italy and Young Europe. He believed Italy should become a unified republic.

Cavour was Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He was not a revolutionary or democrat. He used diplomacy and an alliance with France to defeat Austrian forces in 1859 and advance Italian unification.

The struggle began in 1821 against Ottoman rule. Greek nationalists received support from Greeks abroad and West Europeans sympathetic to ancient Greek culture. The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives assembled in St Paul's Church in Frankfurt. They drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the offered crown, and the assembly was eventually dissolved.

Women actively participated in political associations, newspapers, meetings and demonstrations. Yet they were denied suffrage in the Frankfurt Parliament elections and were admitted only as observers. Activists such as Louise Otto-Peters demanded political freedom and equality.

• Introduced the ideas of la patrie and le citoyen.
• Adopted the tricolour flag.
• Renamed Estates General as National Assembly.
• Created hymns, oaths and national commemorations.
• Introduced uniform laws, weights and measures.
• Promoted a common French language.

They were female allegories representing France and Germany. They gave the abstract idea of a nation a concrete visual form and used symbols to communicate ideas of unity, liberty, heroism and national identity.

1. Middle-class German nationalists tried to unite Germany in 1848.
2. The liberal initiative failed.
3. Prussia then led the movement.
4. Bismarck used the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
5. Three wars with Denmark, Austria and France ended in Prussian victories.
6. William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles in January 1871.

• Introduced the Napoleonic Code.
• Removed privileges based on birth.
• Established equality before law.
• Secured property rights.
• Simplified administrative divisions.
• Abolished feudalism and serfdom-related dues.
• Improved transport and communication.

• Broken chains → being freed.
• Oak-leaf crown → heroism.
• Sword → readiness to fight.
• Olive branch around sword → willingness to make peace.
• Black-red-gold tricolour → liberal-nationalist flag of 1848.
• Rising sun rays → beginning of a new era.

French Revolution.

Duke Metternich.

Young Italy.

A customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most German states.

Otto von Bismarck.

Giuseppe Garibaldi.

The female allegory of the French nation.

The German nation.

The Prussian king rejected the crown, opposition strengthened and the assembly lost social support before being dissolved by troops.

National rivalries, Ottoman decline, territorial competition and rivalry among European powers made the region highly unstable.

In the first half of the nineteenth century, nationalism was closely associated with liberalism, democracy, constitutional government and national self-determination. By the last quarter, nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant and nationalist aspirations were manipulated by European powers for imperialist aims. The Balkans became a major centre of conflict, contributing to the tensions that led to the First World War.