Indus Valley Civilization: Major Sites, Findings & Trade Indus Valley Civilization: Major Sites, Findings & Trade

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. It was one of the three early civilizations of the Near East and South Asia, along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.

• Early Mentions: Charles Masson first noted the ruins of Harappa in 1842. Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), visited the site in 1853 and 1873.
• Official Discovery: The civilization was officially discovered in 1921 when Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa.
• Key Excavators:
  • Daya Ram Sahni: Excavated Harappa in 1921.
  • Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (R.D. Banerji): Discovered Mohenjo-Daro in 1922.
  • Sir John Marshall: Director-General of ASI, officially announced the discovery of the IVC to the world in 1924, marking a significant milestone in Indian archaeology.
  • Mortimer Wheeler: Conducted excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the 1940s.
• Nomenclature: Initially called the 'Indus Valley Civilization' due to its location around the Indus River and its tributaries. Later, it was also termed 'Harappan Civilization' because Harappa was the first site to be discovered.

The IVC was the largest of the three early civilizations, extending from Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, and from Jammu in the north to Maharashtra in the south. Its area covered parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

• Northernmost Site: Manda (Jammu & Kashmir, India) on the Chenab River.
• Southernmost Site: Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) on the Pravara River (a tributary of Godavari).
• Easternmost Site: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) on the Hindon River (a tributary of Yamuna).
• Westernmost Site: Sutkagendor (Balochistan, Pakistan) on the Dasht River.

The Harappan cities were remarkably well-planned, showcasing advanced urban planning and engineering skills.

• Grid System: Cities were divided into rectangular blocks by a grid of straight streets running north-south and east-west.
• Citadel and Lower Town: Most cities were divided into two main parts:
  • Citadel (Upper Town): Smaller, raised area to the west, housing public buildings like granaries, administrative offices, and religious structures. It was often fortified.
  • Lower Town: Larger area to the east, where common people lived. It was also walled.
• Dholavira's Unique Layout: Dholavira was unique with a tripartite division – Citadel, Middle Town, and Lower Town.
• Drainage System: An elaborate and efficient drainage system was a hallmark. Houses had individual drains connected to larger street drains, which were covered with stone slabs or bricks. Manholes for cleaning were present at regular intervals.
• Materials: Predominantly used burnt bricks of standardized size (ratio 1:2:4) for construction, indicating a highly organized system. Sun-dried bricks were used for foundations.
• Public Structures:
  • Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A large rectangular tank, possibly used for ritualistic bathing. It had steps on two sides, changing rooms, and a well-planned water inlet and outlet system.
  • Great Granary (Mohenjo-Daro): The largest building at Mohenjo-Daro, used for storing grains. Similar granaries were found at Harappa.
  • Assembly Hall (Mohenjo-Daro): A pillared hall, possibly for public gatherings.
• Houses: Varied in size, from single-room tenements to large houses with courtyards, multiple rooms, and private wells. Entrances were typically from side lanes, not directly from the main street.

The IVC society was complex, supported by a thriving economy and distinct religious practices.

• Social Organisation: Likely consisted of different social groups: a ruling class (priests/merchants), skilled artisans, farmers, and labourers. No clear evidence of a caste system.
• Economic Life:
  • Agriculture: The backbone of the economy. Major crops included wheat, barley, peas, sesame, lentils, chickpeas, and mustard. Cotton was first cultivated by the Harappans. Evidence of ploughing (Kalibangan) and irrigation canals.
  • Animal Husbandry: Domestication of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. Humped bull was a significant animal. Evidence of horses is controversial (Surkotada).
  • Crafts & Industries: Highly skilled artisans. Production of pottery (red and black ware), bead making (Chanhudaro, Lothal), metallurgy (copper, bronze, gold, silver), shell work, and terracotta figurines.
  • Trade: Extensive internal and external trade. Traded with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Oman, Bahrain, and Afghanistan. Major exports included agricultural products, cotton textiles, timber, copper, and beads. Imports included gold (Kolar, Afghanistan), silver (Afghanistan, Iran), copper (Khetri mines, Rajasthan, Oman), lapis lazuli (Afghanistan), and precious stones. The 'Meluha' mentioned in Mesopotamian texts is believed to refer to the Indus region.
  • Weights and Measures: Used a standardized system of weights, typically cubical in shape, made of chert, limestone, and steatite, following a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 160, 320...).
• Religious Practices:
  • Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines suggest the worship of a Mother Goddess, symbolizing fertility and prosperity.
  • Pashupati Mahadeva: A seal depicting a horned deity surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo, and two deer at his feet) is interpreted as an early form of Lord Shiva (Pashupati, Lord of Animals).
  • Tree and Animal Worship: Peepal tree was revered. Animals like the humped bull, unicorn, and mythical creatures were worshipped.
  • Fire Altars: Found at Kalibangan and Lothal, suggesting ritualistic fire worship.
  • No Temples: No evidence of elaborate temple structures or specific priestly class has been found.
  • Amulets: Used to ward off evil spirits.

The Harappans were skilled artists and craftsmen, leaving behind a rich legacy of artifacts.

• Seals: Thousands of seals (mostly steatite, also copper, faience, terracotta) have been discovered. They are typically square or rectangular, depicting animals (unicorn, humped bull, elephant, tiger, goat, rhinoceros) and human figures, often with inscriptions in the Harappan script. The Pashupati seal is the most famous. Seals were likely used for trade, as amulets, or as identity markers.
• Pottery: Red and black pottery was common. Redware was painted with black geometric designs, animal figures, and plant motifs. Both plain and painted pottery were found.
• Sculptures:
  • Bronze Sculptures: The 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-Daro (a nude female figure with bangles on her left arm) is a masterpiece of lost-wax casting (cire perdue) technique. A bronze buffalo from Mohenjo-Daro and a bronze chariot from Daimabad are other examples.
  • Stone Sculptures: 'Priest King' (or Priest-Statue) from Mohenjo-Daro (bearded male figure with a trefoil pattern cloak) and two male torsos (red sandstone and grey stone) from Harappa are notable.
  • Terracotta Figurines: Numerous terracotta figurines of Mother Goddess, animals (bulls, birds), and toy carts were found.
• Bead Making: A highly developed craft, especially at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads were made from carnelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, steatite, lapis lazuli, and metals like copper and gold.
• Ornaments: Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, armlets, bangles, finger rings, and earrings, made of gold, silver, copper, and precious stones.
• Script: The Harappan script is pictographic and ideographic, written from right to left (boustrophedon style in some cases). It remains undeciphered to date. The longest inscription has about 26 signs.

The Indus Valley Civilization began to decline around 1900 BCE, and by 1300 BCE, most of its major cities were abandoned. The exact causes are still debated, with several theories proposed:

• Aryan Invasion Theory (Mortimer Wheeler): Proposed that invading Aryans destroyed the Harappan cities. Evidence includes skeletons found at Mohenjo-Daro and references to 'fort destroyers' (Purandara) in the Rigveda. However, this theory is largely discredited due to lack of conclusive archaeological evidence for a large-scale invasion and the different timelines.
• Climatic Change:
  • Deforestation: Extensive use of wood for brick burning and construction might have led to deforestation, affecting rainfall patterns and leading to desertification.
  • Drying up of Ghaggar-Hakra River: Geological changes might have diverted the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) river system, which was a lifeline for many Harappan settlements. This would have severely impacted agriculture.
• Floods: Evidence of repeated floods at Mohenjo-Daro (layers of silt) suggests that devastating floods from the Indus River might have destroyed the cities.
• Tectonic Disturbances: Earthquakes and tectonic shifts could have altered river courses, caused floods, and destroyed cities.
• Epidemics: Some scholars suggest that widespread epidemics could have decimated the population.
• Decline in Trade: The decline of trade with Mesopotamia due to political instability in the latter region might have weakened the Harappan economy.

It is likely that a combination of these factors, rather than a single cause, led to the gradual decline and eventual collapse of the mighty Indus Valley Civilization.