Syllabus History & Culture Vedic Age: Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Society & Literature Vedic Age: Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Society & Literature

Vedic Age: Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Society & Literature Vedic Age: Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Society & Literature

SSC CGL study material on Vedic Age: Rig Vedic & Later Vedic society, polity, economy, literature, and religion. Master key facts for exams. SSC CGL study material on Vedic Age: Rig Vedic & Later Vedic society, polity, economy, literature, and religion. Master key facts for exams.

1. Introduction to Vedic Age & Sources1. Introduction to Vedic Age & Sources

The Vedic Age in ancient Indian history spans roughly from 1500 BCE to 600 BCE. It is named after the Vedas, which are the primary literary sources for understanding this period. The Aryans, who migrated to India, are believed to be the creators of the Vedic culture. The Vedic Age is broadly divided into two phases:

  • Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Period): c. 1500 BCE – 1000 BCE, primarily based on the Rig Veda.
  • Later Vedic Period: c. 1000 BCE – 600 BCE, based on the Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

Geographical Spread:

  • Rig Vedic Period: Aryans were confined to the 'Sapta Sindhu' region (land of seven rivers) which includes the Indus and its five tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) along with the Saraswati river.
  • Later Vedic Period: Aryans expanded eastward into the Gangetic plains, establishing settlements in regions like Kuru-Panchala.

Sources:

  • Literary Sources: The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, and Vedangas.
  • Archaeological Sources: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture is associated with the Later Vedic period, while Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is sometimes linked to earlier phases.

2. Rig Vedic Society & Polity (Early Vedic)2. Rig Vedic Society & Polity (Early Vedic)

Society:

  • Family: The basic unit was the 'Kula' (family), headed by the 'Kulapa' (patriarch). Joint family system was prevalent.
  • Varna System: Initially, the society was divided into four varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra), but this division was flexible and based on occupation, not birth. The 'Purusha Sukta' of the 10th Mandala of Rig Veda mentions the origin of the four varnas.
  • Status of Women: Women enjoyed a relatively high status. They could participate in assemblies (Sabha, Vidatha), receive education, and choose their husbands (e.g., Ghosha, Lopamudra, Apala, Vishwavara were Rig Vedic women scholars). Child marriage was not common.
  • Social Divisions: Aryans (fair-skinned) and Dasyus/Dasas (dark-skinned indigenous people).

Polity:

  • Tribal Structure: The Rig Vedic polity was essentially tribal, with the 'Jana' (tribe) as the largest unit. Several 'Janas' formed a 'Janapada' (territorial unit, though less defined than in later periods).
  • Rajan (King/Chief): The tribal chief was called 'Rajan' or 'Gopati'. His position was not hereditary and he was primarily a protector of the tribe and its cattle. He was elected by the 'Jana'.
  • Assemblies:
    • Sabha: Council of elders, performing judicial and administrative functions.
    • Samiti: General assembly of the entire tribe, where the Rajan was elected or re-elected.
    • Vidatha: Oldest assembly, performing religious and military functions.
    • Gana: Another tribal assembly.
  • Administration: The Rajan was assisted by officials like 'Purohita' (priest), 'Senani' (chief of army), and 'Gramani' (head of village). There was no standing army.

3. Rig Vedic Economy & Religion3. Rig Vedic Economy & Religion

Economy:

  • Pastoralism: The primary occupation was cattle rearing. Cattle ('Gau') were the most important form of wealth. Wars were often fought for cattle.
  • Agriculture: Agriculture was secondary. Barley ('Yava') was the main crop. Ploughing was known.
  • Crafts: Limited crafts included carpentry, pottery, weaving, and metalwork (copper, bronze). Iron was not known.
  • Trade: Barter system was prevalent. 'Nishka' (gold ornament) was used as a unit of exchange, not currency.

Religion:

  • Nature Worship: Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped natural forces personified as gods.
  • Prominent Deities:
    • Indra (Purandara): Most important god, god of war, thunder, and rain. Mentioned 250 times in Rig Veda.
    • Agni: Second most important, fire god, intermediary between gods and humans. Mentioned 200 times.
    • Varuna: God of cosmic order (Rita), water, and moral laws.
    • Soma: God of plants, and an intoxicating drink.
    • Other Gods: Surya (Sun), Savitri (Sun god to whom Gayatri Mantra is dedicated), Rudra (storm god), Vayu (wind), Aditi (mother of gods), Usha (goddess of dawn).
  • Rituals: Simple sacrifices and prayers were performed to appease gods and seek blessings for cattle, sons, and wealth. No idol worship or elaborate rituals.

4. Later Vedic Period: Changes in Society & Polity4. Later Vedic Period: Changes in Society & Polity

Society:

  • Varna System: Became rigid and hereditary, based on birth. Brahmins and Kshatriyas gained more power and privileges. Shudras were relegated to a subservient position.
  • Ashramas: The concept of 'Ashramas' (stages of life) emerged: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), Sanyasa (ascetic).
  • Status of Women: Declined significantly. Women lost the right to participate in assemblies. Child marriage became more common, and polygamy was practiced by kings and nobles.
  • Gotra: The institution of 'Gotra' (clan exogamy) emerged, prohibiting marriage within the same 'Gotra'.

Polity:

  • Territorial Kingdoms (Janapadas): Tribal polities transformed into territorial states (Janapadas and later Mahajanapadas). The focus shifted from 'Jana' (people) to 'Janapada' (territory).
  • King's Power: The Rajan's power increased significantly. His position became hereditary. He performed elaborate sacrifices like 'Rajasuya' (consecration), 'Ashvamedha' (horse sacrifice for imperial sovereignty), and 'Vajapeya' (chariot race for power).
  • Assemblies: Sabha and Samiti lost their importance and influence.
  • Administration: A rudimentary administrative machinery developed with officials like 'Bhagadugha' (collector of taxes), 'Suta' (charioteer), 'Sangrahitri' (treasurer).
  • Taxation: 'Bali' (voluntary offering in Rig Vedic period) became a compulsory tax. The king also maintained a standing army.

5. Later Vedic Economy & Religion5. Later Vedic Economy & Religion

Economy:

  • Agriculture: Became the primary occupation. Extensive use of iron tools (e.g., iron ploughshare) led to clearing of forests in the Gangetic plains. Rice ('Vrihi'), wheat ('Godhuma'), and pulses were major crops.
  • Crafts: Specialised crafts developed, including pottery (Painted Grey Ware), carpentry, weaving, tanning, and metalwork (iron, copper, gold).
  • Trade & Urbanisation: Trade expanded, and the beginnings of urbanisation were seen with the emergence of towns. Barter system continued, but the use of 'Nishka' and 'Satamana' (gold pieces) as units of value became more common.

Religion:

  • New Deities: Older gods like Indra and Agni lost their prominence. New gods gained importance:
    • Prajapati (Brahma): The creator god, became supreme.
    • Vishnu: The preserver god.
    • Rudra (Shiva): The destroyer god.
  • Elaborate Rituals: Sacrifices became more complex, elaborate, and expensive, requiring the services of many priests. The priestly class (Brahmins) gained immense power and influence.
  • Philosophical Debates: Towards the end of the Later Vedic period, there was a reaction against the elaborate rituals and priestly dominance, leading to the philosophical speculations found in the Upanishads.

6. Vedic Literature: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas6. Vedic Literature: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas

Vedic literature is primarily Shruti (that which is heard) and is considered divine in origin.

  • The Vedas: The most sacred texts, meaning 'knowledge'. There are four Vedas:
    • Rig Veda: The oldest Veda (c. 1500-1000 BCE). It contains 1028 hymns (Suktas) divided into 10 Mandalas (books). It is a collection of prayers and praises to various deities. The 'Gayatri Mantra' is found in the 3rd Mandala. The 10th Mandala contains the 'Purusha Sukta' which mentions the four varnas.
    • Sama Veda: (c. 1000-500 BCE) The 'Veda of Melodies'. Contains hymns meant to be chanted during sacrifices, forming the basis of Indian classical music.
    • Yajur Veda: (c. 1000-500 BCE) The 'Veda of Sacrificial Formulas'. Contains rituals and formulas for performing sacrifices. It is divided into two parts: Krishna Yajur Veda (Black, with prose and verse) and Shukla Yajur Veda (White, only verse).
    • Atharva Veda: (c. 1000-500 BCE) The 'Veda of Magic Formulas'. Contains charms, spells, incantations, and folk traditions, dealing with healing, protection from evil, and worldly affairs.
  • Brahmanas: Prose texts attached to each Veda, explaining the meaning of Vedic hymns and the proper way to perform rituals and sacrifices. Important ones include Aitareya, Kaushitaki (Rig Veda), Tandya, Jaiminiya (Sama Veda), Shatapatha (Yajur Veda), Gopatha (Atharva Veda).
  • Aranyakas: 'Forest Books'. These are philosophical treatises meant for hermits and ascetics living in forests. They bridge the gap between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads, focusing on mystical interpretations of sacrifices.
  • Upanishads: 'Sitting near a teacher'. These are philosophical and spiritual texts, forming the concluding part of the Vedas (Vedanta). They primarily deal with the nature of Atman (soul), Brahman (ultimate reality), karma, and moksha, rejecting elaborate rituals in favour of knowledge and meditation. There are over 108 Upanishads, with 10-12 being principal ones (e.g., Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Mandukya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka). 'Satyameva Jayate' is from Mundaka Upanishad.
  • Vedangas (Limbs of the Vedas): Six auxiliary disciplines that developed to understand and interpret the Vedas correctly.
    • Shiksha: Phonetics (pronunciation).
    • Kalpa: Rituals and ceremonies (Srauta, Grihya, Dharma Sutras).
    • Vyakarana: Grammar (Panini's Ashtadhyayi).
    • Nirukta: Etymology (Yaska's Nirukta).
    • Chhanda: Meter (prosody).
    • Jyotisha: Astronomy (astrology for auspicious times).

Quick Revision FactsQuick Revision Facts

  • Rig Veda is the oldest Veda, containing 1028 hymns.
  • Sapta Sindhu region was the geographical area of Rig Vedic Aryans.
  • Pastoralism (cattle rearing) was the primary occupation in the Rig Vedic period.
  • Indra (Purandara) was the most prominent Rig Vedic deity.
  • Agni was the intermediary god between humans and gods in Rig Veda.
  • Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha were tribal assemblies in the Rig Vedic period.
  • Rajan's position was not hereditary in the Early Vedic period.
  • Women enjoyed a relatively high status in Rig Vedic society.
  • The Varna system was flexible and occupation-based in the Early Vedic period.
  • Gayatri Mantra is found in the 3rd Mandala of the Rig Veda.
  • Later Vedic period saw Aryan expansion into the Gangetic plains.
  • Agriculture became the primary occupation in the Later Vedic period, aided by iron tools.
  • The Varna system became rigid and hereditary in the Later Vedic period.
  • Prajapati (Brahma), Vishnu, and Rudra gained prominence in Later Vedic religion.
  • Elaborate sacrifices like Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya were common in the Later Vedic period.
  • Sabha and Samiti lost their importance in the Later Vedic polity.
  • The concept of Ashramas (stages of life) emerged in the Later Vedic period.
  • Sama Veda is known as the 'Veda of Melodies' and is the basis of Indian music.
  • Yajur Veda deals with sacrificial rituals and formulas.
  • Atharva Veda contains magic spells, charms, and folk medicine.
  • Brahmanas are prose texts explaining Vedic hymns and rituals.
  • Aranyakas are 'Forest Books', philosophical interpretations for hermits.
  • Upanishads are philosophical texts, also called Vedanta, focusing on Atman and Brahman.
  • 'Satyameva Jayate' is derived from the Mundaka Upanishad.
  • Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines for understanding the Vedas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda, Jyotisha).