Harappan Domestication of Animals & Wild Fauna
Analyse the pastoral economy, animal husbandry, wild fauna assemblages, hunting-fishing networks, and the horse remains debate of the Indus Valley Civilisation for UPSC GS-1.
1. Pastoral Economy and Domesticated Animals
Animal husbandry was a cornerstone of the Harappan subsistence economy, complementing agriculture and providing vital secondary products.
- Cattle (Bos indicus): The humped bull (zebu) was highly prized for pulling solid-wheeled carts and heavy wooden ploughshares. Cattle also provided milk, butter, and beef.
- Small Ruminants: Sheep and goats were kept in large numbers for meat, milk, and wool. Pigs (Sus scrofa) were reared in urban dump yards for meat.
- Beasts of Burden: Domestic asses (donkeys) and camels (bones found at Kalibangan) served as beasts of burden for overland desert trade routes.
- Bull Cult: The humped bull is realistically rendered in masterfully carved steatite seals and clay figurines, indicating its status as a symbol of power or fertility.
- The Missing Cow: Intriguingly, the female cow is completely absent from seals, copper tablets, and terracotta art. This suggests the cow was not a central ritual icon, unlike in the Rigvedic period.
- Domestic Pets: Dogs and cats were kept. Dogs are represented in terracotta toys (some with collars), and cat footprints are recorded.
2. Wild Animals, Hunting, and Fishing
Harappan society interacted extensively with wild fauna for supplementary nutrition, bone/ivory raw materials, and symbolic art.
- Rainforest Fauna: Tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and gaur (bison) are frequently depicted on seals, indicating that the Indus plain was wetter and more heavily forested than it is today.
- The Missing Lion: The lion is extremely rare on seals (only depicted as a combat motif under Western Asian influence), whereas the tiger is a common motif, highlighting differences from Mesopotamian art.
- Deer & Gharial: Various deer (sambar, chital, barasingha) and gharials (crocodiles) are depicted, showing familiarity with riverine and forest ecology.
- Hunting: Copper arrowheads and clay slingshots were used to hunt wild boar, deer, and birds. Ivory was harvested from elephants for crafting luxury pins, combs, and dice.
- Fishing: Copper/bronze fish hooks have been excavated in large numbers at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Lothal. Riverine catfish and marine fish were caught.
- Makran Coast Fish Trade: Zooarchaeological studies of dried fish bones at Harappa show they were imported from the Makran coast, proving a structured inland-maritime trade network.
3. Zooarchaeology and The Horse Controversy
Scientific analysis of bone remains (osteology) helps reconstruct dietary habits, pastoral management, and long-standing historical debates.
- Cut Marks: High concentrations of bones with cut marks near urban residential sectors prove meat processing and butchery.
- Mortality Profiles: The slaughter of sheep/goats at young ages indicates meat production, whereas keeping cattle to old age indicates they were used for milk and traction.
- Wild vs Domestic: Domesticated cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goat bones make up over 70% to 80% of faunal assemblages at most sites, proving that hunting was secondary.
- Surkotada Bones: Excavated by J.P. Joshi, Mature-Late Harappan layers yielded bones claimed to be the true horse (Equus caballus). Archaeologist Sandor Bokonyi confirmed this identification.
- The Counter-Argument: Other scholars, including Richard Meadow, argue these bones belong to the wild ass (khur/Equus hemionus) or domestic ass, which are native to Kutch.
- Vedic Shift: The horse is central to Rigvedic culture but completely absent from Harappan seals and terracotta art (unlike the bull/unicorn). Therefore, it was not culturally integrated into Harappan society.
Evolution of Harappan Faunal Interaction
- c. 3300 BCE - 2600 BCE — Early Harappan Pastoralism: Establishment of village-based animal husbandry (cattle, sheep, goat) alongside early agricultural expansion. Development of pastoral-nomadic seasonal networks in Gujarat and Baluchistan.
- c. 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE — Mature Harappan Exploitation: Intensive cattle breeding for urban traction (carts) and dairy. Advanced riverine and marine fishing networks (Makran coast dried fish trade). Prolific animal representation in seals, copper plates, and terracotta art.
- c. 1900 BCE - 1300 BCE — Late Harappan Shifts: Weakening monsoons and desiccation of pastures lead to ruralization. Increased reliance on local cattle and sheep breeding, and shift towards localized, opportunistic hunting/fishing.
Key Questions & Answers
- Which animal is most frequently depicted on Mature Harappan seals?
- The mythical Unicorn (one-horned creature), followed by the humped bull (zebu), elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and water buffalo.
- Which major domesticate is economically vital but completely absent from seal iconography?
- The Cow . Humped bulls are highly prominent, but the female cow is never depicted on seals, possibly due to taboos or specific symbolic conventions.
- Where is the site of Surkotada located, and what is its faunal significance?
- Located in Gujarat . It has yielded disputed bone remains of the true horse ( Equus caballus ) from Mature-Late Harappan levels.
- What evidence exists for the domestic cat in the Indus Valley?
- At Chanhudaro , a baked brick was found with paw prints of a dog chasing a cat, confirming their presence in urban households.
- How did coastal Harappans utilize marine resources?
- They engaged in extensive sea fishing. Salted and dried marine fish were traded from coastal outposts in Baluchistan (Makran coast) to inland cities like Harappa.
Memory Aids
- Mnemonic 1: Domesticated Animal Suite: Remember the primary domesticated suite: **C**attle, **B**uffalo, **S**heep, **G**oat, **P**ig, **A**ss, **C**amel.
- Mnemonic 2: The Horse Skeletal Remains Sites: Skeletal/clay evidence for horses: **Sur**kotada (bones/skeletons), **Loth**al (terracotta figurine), and **Kali**bangan (teeth remains).
- Mnemonic 3: Non-depicted Animals on Seals: Despite their economic presence, the **Cow**, **Horse**, and **Camel** are NEVER depicted on Harappan seals.
Common Exam Traps
- Trap 1: Do not choose statements claiming that the cow was the most common animal depicted on seals. Humped bulls are common, but the cow is NEVER depicted on seals.
- Trap 2: Avoid options asserting that the horse was a central draft animal in Mature Harappan chariot warfare. Light-spoked wheeled chariots and horse-drawn warfare only appear in the Vedic/Post-Vedic period.
- Trap 3: Do not assume the lion was a popular icon. The lion is absent/rare on seals; the tiger is the dominant feline motif.
- Trap 4: Watch out for questions claiming camels were absent. Camel bones are documented at Kalibangan and were used for desert transport.
- Trap 5: Do not confuse domestic dog burials. Human burials with dogs are found at Ropar (Punjab), which is a key Neolithic-Harappan transition site.