Religions & Belief Systems of the Indus Valley Civilisation
Explore the deities, animistic traditions, sacred animals, purification rituals, and burial customs of the Harappan Civilisation for UPSC GS-1.
1. Pashupati Seal, Mother Goddess & Male/Female Deities
Harappan religion is primarily reconstructed from glyptic arts (seals) and terracotta figurines, displaying a pantheon of male and female deities without any trace of public monumental temples.
- Discovery & Iconography: Excavated at Mohenjo-daro, this steatite seal depicts a seated, three-faced male figure in a yogic posture (mulabandhasana), wearing a horned headdress.
- Surrounding Animals: He is flanked by four animals: an **elephant** and **tiger** on his right, and a **rhinoceros** and **water buffalo** on his left. Two **deer** (or ibexes) sit beneath his low throne.
- Interpretation: John Marshall termed him *Proto-Shiva*. Modern scholars (like Doris Srinivasan) suggest he represents a composite bovine deity or a pre-Vedic deity associated with fertility.
**Mother Goddess:** Hand-modeled terracotta figurines of standing, heavily ornamented females with fan-shaped headdresses are common at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The soot-stained headdress cup/panniers indicate their use in household domestic rituals.
**Temple Absence:** Unlike Mesopotamia (Ziggurats) and Egypt (Karnak), the Harappan civilization has yielded no temples. Religious practices were decentralized, domestic, and civic.
2. Animism, Tree & Animal Worship, and Therianthropic Beliefs
The Harappans practiced a form of animism and nature worship, attributing spiritual qualities to trees, animals, and composite mythological creatures.
- Pipal Tree Worship: The *Pipal tree (Ficus religiosa)* is frequently represented on seals and pottery. Notable seals depict a horned deity emerging from a Pipal tree, with a worshipper kneeling in front and a line of seven figures below.
- Composite Beasts: Therianthropic figures (part-human, part-animal), such as tiger-bodied men and three-headed monsters (unicorn-bull-ibex), highlight a rich mythological lore.
**Animal Worship:** The mythical **Unicorn** (one-horned animal with a sacred standard/censer) is the most common motif. The majestic **humped bull (Zebu)** is depicted realistically, suggesting strength and fertility worship.
**Great Bath:** Located on the Citadel of Mohenjo-daro, this waterproofed brick pool (using gypsum mortar and bitumen) was built for public, water-based purificatory bathing and civic rituals.
3. Burial Practices, Fire Altars & Ritual Architecture
Funerary practices and sacrificial altars show regional variations across the civilization, revealing concepts of afterlife and public rituals.
- Inhumation: Extended burial in simple rectangular pits oriented North-South (head to the North) was the standard practice. Grave goods included pottery, copper mirrors, beads, and food offerings.
- Wooden Coffin: Harappa's R-37 cemetery revealed a rare wooden coffin burial.
- Lothal Double Burial: Three graves at Lothal contained twin skeletons buried together, sparking debates on joint burials.
- Kalibangan Pot Burials: Pits containing only pottery and grave goods but no skeletal remains (symbolic graves).
**Fire Altars:** Rectangular or oval clay-lined pits dug into the floors have been found at **Kalibangan** and **Lothal**. These altars contained charcoal, ash, terracotta triangular cakes, and animal bones, suggesting public fire sacrifices or rituals.
**Amulets:** Numerous terracotta and steatite amulets indicate a belief in magical protection, evil spirits, and personal protective charms.
Religious Beliefs & Ritual Archetypes
- Pashupati & Mother Goddess — Deities & Glyptic Art: Emergence of sophisticated iconographical archetypes such as the Pashupati Seal and terracotta Mother Goddess figurines with soot-stained headdresses.
- Great Bath & Sacred Animals — Animism & Purificatory Architecture: Development of monumental civic water structures for purificatory rituals, alongside widespread worship of the Pipal tree and mythical creatures like the Unicorn.
- Fire Altars & Standard Burials — Ritual Closures & Funerary Customs: Integration of fire worship in oval and rectangular altars (Kalibangan/Lothal) and standardized North-South extended inhumation with grave goods.
Key Questions & Answers
- Which animals surround the seated deity in the famous Pashupati Seal of Mohenjo-daro?
- An elephant , a tiger , a rhinoceros , and a water buffalo , with two deer (or ibexes) depicted under the seat.
- How did Sir John Marshall interpret the horned, three-faced deity on the Pashupati Seal?
- As a Proto-Shiva (an early historical form of Shiva as Mahadeva or Pashupati, the Lord of Animals), though this is debated by modern scholars.
- What evidence suggests that the terracotta Mother Goddess figurines were used in household rituals?
- The presence of soot-stained cup-like panniers on the sides of their elaborate headdresses, likely used as oil lamps or for burning incense.
- Which tree was widely considered sacred and represented frequently on Harappan seals and pottery?
- The Pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) , often shown with a horned deity standing in its branches.
- What is the standard orientation of bodies in Mature Harappan graves?
- An extended position oriented North-South , with the head pointing toward the North and the feet toward the South.
Memory Aids
- Mnemonic 1: Pashupati Seal Surrounding Animals: Remember the animal composition of the Pashupati Proto-Shiva seal: **T**iger, **E**lephant, **B**uffalo, **R**hinoceros surrounding the deity, and 2 **D**eer/ibexes beneath the seat.
- Mnemonic 2: Fire Altars Locations: **Ka**libangan and **Lo**thal are the two primary Mature Harappan sites where clay-lined **Fire** Altars with ashes, charcoal, and animal bone fragments were discovered.
- Mnemonic 3: Regional Burial Oddities: Wood **Co**ffin burial is at **Ha**rappa, **Do**uble/twin burial is at **Lo**thal, and symbolic **Po**t/cenotaph burial is at **Ka**libangan.